Rational Choice Theory

In game theory, bounded rationality is a concept based on the fact that rationality of individuals is limited by the information they have, the cognitive limitations of their minds, and the finite amount of time they have to make decisions. This contrasts with the concept of rationality as optimization. Another way to look at bounded rationality is that, because decision-makers lack the ability and resources to arrive at the optimal solution, they instead apply their rationality only after having greatly simplified the choices available.Thus the decision-maker is a satisficer, one seeking a satisfactory solution rather than the optimal one. Some models of human behavior in the social sciences assume that humans can be reasonably approximated or described as â€Å"rational† entities (see for example rational choice theory). Many economics models assume that people are on average rational, and can in large enough quantities be approximated to act according to their preferences.T he concept of bounded rationality revises this assumption to account for the fact that perfectly rational decisions are often not feasible in practice due to the finite computational resources available for making them. [edit] Models of bounded rationality The term is thought to have been coined by Herbert Simon. In Models of Man, Simon points out that most people are only partly rational, and are in fact emotional/irrational in the remaining part of their actions.In another work, he states â€Å"boundedly rational agents experience limits in formulating and solving complex problems and in processing (receiving, storing, retrieving, transmitting) information† (Williamson, p. 553, citing Simon). Simon describes a number of dimensions along which â€Å"classical† models of rationality can be made somewhat more realistic, while sticking within the vein of fairly rigorous formalization. These include: limiting what sorts of utility functions there might be.recognizing the costs of gathering and processing information. the possibility of having a â€Å"vector† or â€Å"multi-valued† utility function. Simon suggests that economic agents employ the use of heuristics to make decisions rather than a strict rigid rule of optimization. They do this because of the complexity of the situation, and their inability to process and compute the expected utility of every alternative action. Deliberation costs might be high and there are often other, concurrent economic activities also requiring decisions.Daniel Kahneman proposes bounded rationality as a model to overcome some of the limitations of the rational-agent models in economic literature. As decision makers have to make decisions about how and when to decide, Ariel Rubinstein proposed to model bounded rationality by explicitly specifying decision-making procedures. This puts the study of decision procedures on the research agenda. Gerd Gigerenzer argues that most decision theorists who have di scussed bounded rationality have not really followed Simon's ideas about it.Rather, they have either considered how people's decisions might be made sub-optimal by the limitations of human rationality, or have constructed elaborate optimising models of how people might cope with their inability to optimize. Gigerenzer instead proposes to examine simple alternatives to a full rationality analysis as a mechanism for decision making, and he and his colleagues have shown that such simple heuristics frequently lead to better decisions than the theoretically optimal procedure.From a computational point of view, decision procedures can be encoded in algorithms and heuristics. Edward Tsang argues that the effective rationality of an agent is determined by its computational intelligence. Everything else being equal, an agent that has better algorithms and heuristics could make â€Å"more rational† (more optimal) decisions than one that has poorer heuristics and algorithms.

Surah Fatiha

Surah Fatiha is the first surah of the quran. This surah is also called†The Mother of the Quran†. Surah Fatiha is considered as a summarized surah of the Quran. We recite Surah Fatiha 17times a day in our 5 time prayers.† When the Prophet Muhammad ? said to a companion that he would teach him the greatest chapter in the Quran, he recited Surah Al Fatihah† The Prophet Muhammad ? said that â€Å"Whoever does not recite Surah Al Fatihah in his prayer, his prayer is invalid†. This Surah is a condition for the effectiveness of the prayer. It is the Makki Surah of the Holy Quran, which means that it was revealed on the Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) while He was in Makkah. It was initially the 5th chapter to be disclosed but after Furqan e Hameed was assembled together, it was put at the beginning.Surah Al-Fatiha itself means â€Å"The Opening† as this chapter comes right at the start of the Holy Book. Moreover, it also serves as the starting of Salah. It also has the honor of being the very first Surah that is made known completely. Although it consists of 7 Ayats only, but it still explains the Veneration of the Almighty in a very comprehensive fashion and also is a great means of supplication of asking Allah for keeping one on the right path.Virtues of Surah FatihaThere are many virtues associated with this Surah. Hazrat Abu Saeed al-Khudri narrates: â€Å"While on a journey we halted at a place. A girl came to us and said: â€Å"The chief of this tribe has been stung by a scorpion and our men are not present, is there anybody amongst you who can recite something upon him to treat him?† Then, one of our men went along with her although we did not think that he knew any such treatment. However, our friend went to the chief and recited something upon him and the chief was cured. Thereupon, the chief gave him thirty sheep and gave us all milk to drink. When he returned, we asked our friend: â€Å"Did you know anything to recite upon him to cure him?† He said: â€Å"No, I only recited Umm al-Kitab (i.e. Surah al-Fatiha) upon him.† We said that do not do anything until we reach Madinah and ask the Prophet regarding this (practice and rewardwhether the sheep were lawful or not for us). Upon reaching Madinah, we narrated this to the Prophet (PBUH), whereupon he remarked: â€Å"How did he come to know that Al-Fatiha can be used as a cure? (PBUH) Distribute your reward amongst yourselves and a lot a share for me as well†.† (Sahih Bukhari)Theme of Surah FatihaThe essence of the Quran is Surah Fatiha. Surah fatiha is paired surah. It can be recited alone but you cannot start reciting other surah before Surah Fatiha, we must have to recite Surah Fatiha and then the other Surah of the Quran. Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) said† The greatest i can recite is Surah Fatiha. This surah has a mind boogling tafseer and its impact on human life is great. This is the only surah on which Allah Himself commented, there is no other surah than this on which Alllah commented. Surah Fatiha starts with the praise of Allah and ends with a dua that Allah guide us the path on which your mercy is bestowed not the opposite of this. Brief Tafseer of Surah Fatiha1)In the Name of Allah The first ayah of Surah Fatiha is: In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Most Merciful. (Al-Fatiha:This phrase is known as the bismillah. It is good to recite it before doing any action.Surah Fatiha is the surah which makes every muslim wheather he is Aalim(Scholar), or Jahil, man or woman to accept that they dont to how to live life.If you accept that you know nothing than Surah Fatiha is the guidance surah, which shows how to live a perfect life, which path to follow and who to obey.All Praise is due to Allah The second ayah is: All praise be to Allah, the Lord of all the worlds. (Al-Fatiha: 2)The Meaning of Hamd and the Difference between Hamd and Shukr Hamd means praise and also thankfulness. The scholars differed as to the relation between the words hamd and shukr. Some said that they both have the same meaning. So, the meaning of hamd, in their view, is the same as shukr (thankfulness, gratitude). Hamd is something which must be done with love and reverence, but shukr does not need this. Shukr is done in response to a favour which is done to a person but hamd is done simply because the one being praised and thanked is worthy of that. â€Å"Whatever is created in between land and sky is created for a mean but non-muslim dont understand and deny the existence of Allah. If we ponder in the universe we see the huge and perfectly creation of everything so we came to conclusion that who created perfect design of a universe must be a perfect creator and surely these people are the best who know their God. The word Rab which means master of the master in terms of having full knowledge of each and everything.The Beneficent, The Most Merciful The third ayah is: The Beneficent, The Most Merciful. (Al-Fatih: 3)We see that these two words are already mentioned above and now they are mentioned again. The previous ayah mentioned that Allah is the Rab of the mankind. So again in this ayah it says the Ar-rehman and Raheem which means Allah being the Rab of the Mankind is all part of mercy for us, Allah is one who loves humans 70times more than a mother's love.Master of the Day of Reward The fourth ayah is: The Only Owner of the Day of Recompense. (Al-Fatiha: 4)Malik which means king, the dominion of a person. In this ayah we clearly see that Allah is the lord of the mankind. At the day of judgement when all mankind will be gathered and each person will be either rewarded or punished on their deeds. We see that Allah is the one who will have absolute power on the day of judgment and no other creation will hold such power to resist the enforcement of punishments that He decrees or to prevent anyone from receiving the rewards that He decides to confer.You (Alone) We Worship The fifth ayah is: You (alone) we worship and You (alone) we ask for help. (Al-Fatiha: 5)This is the middle of the surah and the shift of the surah. At this point there is a great shift in the surah. In previous 3 ayah we already praised Allah. Allah says this ayah is now between Me and my worshipper, I will give my worshipper whatever he/she asks for. â€Å"We worship† means we obey. Worship is obedience and self-abasement. It means to humble yourself before Allah (SWT) and to submit to His Will. Outwardly it is self-abasement, but in reality, it is glory and beautification. The ayah affirms the Lordship of Allah and affirms that worship is due to Him. â€Å"Iyyaaka nasta'een† means we seek help, support and success. Usually, in most sentences the verb comes first and then the object; but in this ayah the object of the verb is mentioned first and then the verb. So why is this? It is in order to attach importance to it, to Allah (SWT). It also refers the status of the slave and his worship which is lower so it will come after mentioning the Lord, Allah (SWT).Guide us on the Straight Path The sixth ayah is: Guide us on the Straight Path. (Al-Fatiha: 6)In previous ayah as Allah mentioned that whatever my worshipper will ask I will give him. So whats better than to ask Allah to guide us the straigth path, guide us the path which will benefit us in this world and in the hereafter. For example in normal life when we visit some new often we often need someone to guide us to the destination so we ask someone and he illustrates us the directions. But in this ayah we ask Allah to hold our hands and guide us the path like hold our hands and take us the right place we are looking for. The word seerat means road or a path. But whats the difference between seerat and tareeq or sabeel? Seerat is a road on which we go and get our goals, it is the shortest road with great space for everyone to join. The word Mustaqeem also means straight path, which emphasis the straightness of the path. It means to remain firm and stand without tilting. We should avoid to fall and follow the wrong path.The Path of Those†¦ The seventh and final ayah is: The path of those you have blessed, not of those with anger on them, nor of those who are astray. (Al-Fatiha: 7)As it is mentioned in the previous ayah that guide us the straight path, so there must be a choice of a path which we want Allah to guide us, which path is that? It is the path on which Allah has granted his blessed but not his anger. Whosoever obeys Allah, and the Messenger, they are with those whom Allah has favored, the Prophets, the sincere, the martyrs and the righteous, and these are the best company. (Al-Nisa': 69)So, the favored and blessed people are the Prophets, the righteous, the martyrs and the pious. And who are the people with anger on them and those who are astray? This is explained by the Prophet. ‘Adi ibn Hatim (RA) asked him about those with anger on them and he replied that it refers to the Jews. He then asked him about those who are astray and he replied that it refers to the Christians. This is reported by al-Tirmidhi and is authentic

Belief Andrew Jackson in Democracy

Belief Andrew Jackson in Democracy Andrew Jackson’s belief in Democracy was that all branches and agencies of the government must listen to and follow the wishes of the people. He wanted to change the way the country had been run before he took charge. He didn’t think that the people were really getting there fair say on things. Andrew Jackson was very Democratic because he wanted the people to have more say and power in the government, he wanted to extend our boundaries so that people could move more out west, and he wanted the national bank to be run differently than it was. Andrew Jackson thought that our country wasn’t Democratic enough so when he campaigned he told the people that he will listen to them and do there will. He believed that the people in office before him did a terrible job of this. In the year 1816, the people chose presidential electors by a legislature, and by the year 1832, most of the presidential electors were chosen by the people except in one state only which was South Carolina. Then again in 1836, the presidential electors were chosen by the people in all but one state which was once again South Carolina. Then on December 8, 1829, in a letter to Congress Jackson said, â€Å"In a country where offices are created solely for the benefit of the people, no one man has any more right to (government jobs) than another†. This shows that he believes that any citizen of the country has a right to be in the government. The second reason that Andrew Jackson was Democratic was that he wanted to extend our country for the people. He wanted the Indians to move out west to what is now Oklahoma so more Americans could move off of the east coast and develop our country more. A lot of people today say that this was a terrible dictator thing to do, but really it wasn’t he told them that they could stay in the condition that they obeyed our laws. He also paid the Indians who decided to go to Oklahoma. Though Jackson was democratic by expanding voting rights, he made many controversial decisions that reflected self-interest and not the common man. Many of Jackson’s critics believed that he ignored the separation of powers and abused his powers as president (Doc 3). In response to Andrew Jackson’s Bank Veto Message, Daniel Webster explained that â€Å"(President Jackson’s message) extends the grasp of (the chief executive) over every power of the government†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Doc 5). Jackson crushed the majority vote of Congress by the use of the presidential veto. He selfishly broadened his power as president and disregarded the majority’s desires. Because Jackson caused the fall of the National Bank, the United States struggled to manage money and loans and this consequently led to the Panic of 1837. In Andrew Jackson’s letter to Congress, he asks for their consideration of, â€Å"(a) law whic h limits appointments to four years,†. Jackson wanted to rotate government officials so that he could implement spoils system. This is why I think Andrew Jackson was democratic.

Disability In Two Movies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Disability In Two Movies - Essay Example These impairments may occur to different aspects of normal functioning which include cognitive, sensory, physical, or psychological development (Morrison 2010, p45). There are various types of disabilities. The most common types are physical disabilities such as handicap-which is large scale disability of almost all physical body parts, limb malfunctions, mental retardations, visual and hearing impairments. However, other forms such intellectual disabilities, cognitive ones and gustatory and olfactory impairments have been given little attention (Johnson 2008, p56). Various media have presented disability situations differently. Among them include popular media such as film. In the last three decades, the importance of raising attention to the situation has aroused a lot of public interest and consequently, such popular media (Thomson 2003, p78). Basing on life-related realties or fiction, film has presented disability situations either as they happen in reality or in different perce ptions. But the terminology still remains a complex phenomenon. Given the diversity in occurrence, different understandings have thus been applied to this terminology. In order to understand it effectively first, it is imperative that a theoretical approach to explanation of the terminology be undertaken and consequently evaluation of such presentations be made with regard the movies â€Å"My Left Foot† and â€Å"Born on the Fourth of July†. Theoretical perceptions of disability The theoretical explanation of disability takes a multidimensional approach. Focusing on the affected parts of the body, theoretical approach emphasizes on processing functions and explains disability according to different perspectives. To begin with, medical model posits that disability is a malfunction of a part of the body caused by either trauma, illness or other health-related problems, which results in inability in function and thus needing special medical attention by professionals. The model reviews this terminology is able to be remedied and proposes a curative approach to the situation. It views the condition as absolutely rectifiable or almost correctible. Influential political views on this model suggest that medical practices be modified to allow entire medical care for the situation. A social model states that a social construct created through societal perception of reality. It explains that the problem is not individual based but rather collectively created by particular forces in the environment. It indicates that integration into the society is possible, but only through application of appropriate perceptual views. Given that the condition is created by ideologies, large scale change involving individuals and the communities will change disability and thus equal access to resources and privileges only entails human rights issues (Jensen 2011, p89). A biological mode posits that disability is a genetic condition that affects specific individuals or simpl y family trees. Existing in genetic forms, inborn disabilities such as being handicapped and other biological malfunctions occur genetically due to containment in genes and are transmitted down generations. This model only makes observation of the situation with further elaboration of remedy of the situation taking medical approach as a resolution. Movie summaries My left foot This is a

Topical Analysis on Japan's Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Topical Analysis on Japan's Revolution - Essay Example In order to understand the nature of the Meiji restoration, there is the need to look at the relationship between the merchants and the lower samurais. Both parties were anti-Tokugawa forces who were determined to annihilate the Tokugawa regime, with the lower samurais being vested with the leadership that would yield desired societal changes. The lower Samurais had superseded the ranks of the Samurai in order to become the spokesmen in this society. The Meiji restoration was a shift of the Japanese government to the upper samurai to lower samurai. In achieving this political control, the lower samurais supplied the ablest individuals such as Ito Hirobumi, Saigo Takamori, Inoue Kaoru and Omura Masujiro. The lower samurai achieved this through the financial help of the merchants. Merchants such as Konoike, Iwasaki, Shimada and Ono made immense contributions through financial donations. Hence, it is apparent that the Meiji restoration was achieved through a coalition between the lower samurai and merchant class. Moreover, the Feudal-merchant coalition was a cornerstone in the Japanese revolution. Unlike the class struggle that existed in western countries such as a France and England, the scenario in Japan was different. Marxists argue that capitalist bourgeoisie rise against feudal aristocrats in a bid to seize political power from them. The case in Japan was characterized by a collaboration between the aristocracy and the merchant classes. Hence, the Samurai and the merchant class had a symbiotic relation and they needed each other. In the Tokugawa system, the merchants were largely dependent on the daimyo and their treasurers. They saw... Japan’s revolution, dubbed ‘Meiji restoration’, took place following numerous reforms instituted by the Japanese government late in the 19th century. The subsequent events constituted the most dramatic events to ever happen in the modern history of Japan. It was in the Japanese revolution when universal education system was established. Moreover, during this revolution the navy and the army were established as well as the establishment of an effective administrative bureaucracy both locally and nationally. The Japanese revolution was multifaceted and culminated in Japan becoming a modern state. There are numerous shortcomings in the book by Norman (2000) as there lacks a detailed explanation of the nature of the Japanese revolution.The account of the Japanese revolution was scantily presented in the article with some facts being left out. The events that contributed to the revolution emanated from within the country and brought significant changes crucial to the d evelopment of a modern Japan. The multifaceted revolution saw a universal system of education being introduced in Japan as well as the establishment of the army and the navy. It is important to note that social disparities that existed during the Tokugawa regime were primary responsible for fuelling animosity that led to the revolution. The fact that the new regime under Meiji turned to the western countries for progress reveals that the Tokugawa regime was not toppled due to its move to seek assistance from these countries but rather due to domestic squabbles. The revolution revealed that there was animosity within the ranks of Tokugawa regime as there is no justification of having turned to the west for progress.

Formal Research-Based Persuasive Report Research Paper

Formal -Based Persuasive Report - Research Paper Example I reviewed seven empirical resources, which focused on the effects of workplace flexibility on employee welfare and general company performance and image. Attached is the result of my research and recommendations. My secondary research suggests that a compressed work week produces benefits of reduced work-life conflict and stress, better productivity, and improved health for employees, which translates to gains in productivity and morale in the workplace. Higher employee morale is related to employee satisfaction, which will draw future talented employees, while recruiting and retaining highly-engaged ones. Workplace flexibility is also related to corporate social responsibility and corporate image. Thus, reducing work days contributes to better employee welfare and corporate reputation and performance. The company must be prepared of parking and other logistics. Longer work hours for four days can have strains on company resources during that time. Without sufficient resources and other support, the positive effects of a compressed work week might be reduced or lost altogether. If Coastal Sunbelt would make a rotating 4-day work week, this can result to more maximized parking spaces. For example, half of the employees will work normal shift for one week, and then for the second week, they work only for 4 days. The second half of the employees will work 4 days in the week, where the first group worked 5 days. This system would free up parking, and it will save Coastal Sunbelt the cost of building a parking garage. 7 Some of the pressing issues common to many organizations are work-life conflict and the recruitment and retention of high-performing and dedicated employees. Coastal Sunbelt faces theses issues, among others, which affects its efficiency and effectiveness. To motivate employees, the organization must offer innovative solutions, one of which is shifting from a five-day to a four-day work week. This proposal argues that to motivate and engage

Ciminal law 1 Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Ciminal law 1 - Case Study Example Murder is unlawful homicide committed with 'malice aforethought' with the penalty of mandatory life imprisonment. 'Malice aforethought' describes the mens rea for a conviction of murder. Here it is necessary to consider that Drew had no 'malice aforethought' to killing Sam, who delivers the parcel, which consists of a letter bomb. Sam and a pedestrian was the victim of the bomb explosion. In Draft Criminal Code (Law Com. No. 177), the Law Commission recommended a change in the law. Clause 54 provides that a person is guilty of murder if he causes death of another intending to cause death or intending to cause serious personal harm and being aware that he may cause death. Colin was, in fact, an off-duty police officer. He was driving his family to Dover for they were going on holiday. Colin got back into his car and continued driving. The principle is that 'one must take one's victim as one finds them'. In Dytham6, D, a police constable, was on duty in uniform near a club when a man was ejected from the club and kicked to death by a 'bouncer'. D took no steps to intervene and when the incident was over he drove off having told a by stander that he was going of duty. D was charged with the common law offence of misconduct whilst acting as an offence of justice, in that he had wilfully and without reasonable excuse or justification neglected to perform his duty to preserve the Queen's Peace and to protect the person of the deceased or arrest his assailants or otherwise bring them to justice. The CA upholds his conviction. However, D was convicted not for his positive act. Place reliance on a passage in Stephen's Digest of Criminal Law, which stated: 'Every public officer commits a misdemeanour who wilfully neglects to perform any duty which he is bound either by common law or by statute to perform provided that the discharge of such a duty is not attended with grater danger than a man of ordinary firmness and activity may be expected to encounter.' English law, unlike many other systems, does not impose on people a general duty to take positive action to assist people in difficulties or to avert harm, even if they are physically well capable of doing so. However, there is a very wide area of uncertainty. If there is a moral obligation to assist people in difficulty or danger, Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead and Lord Hoffmann in Stovin v Wise7, discuss why there is no legal obligation. In The Ogopogo 8the defendant had invited the claimant as a guest on his yacht. He accidentally fell overboard. D was not a mere bystander and was held to have a duty to reasonable care to save the claimant. In Goldman v Hargrave 9 may not have to show the care of a reasonable person, but only have to do what he is capable of, given his health and resources D was liable for his negative act. This is not difficult to apply when the D has undertaken an on going responsibility, in the course of which the omission occurs [Henderson v Merrett Syndicates10] and Home Office v Dorset Yacht Co11. To identify there liability it is necessary to consider few relevant case. R v Yaqoob 12 considered a partner in a taxi firm who was responsible for making all necessary arrangements for the inspection and maintenance of a minibus

Team Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Team - Essay Example Social groups of relative similarities functioned and develop them own system of values and accordance making them united in their own concept and apart from the other social groups. Thus with this concept, cultural diversity has predominantly existed as how society themselves strive and develop to the point of their current state. However, this innate and basically natural concept in the society has been always a massive hindrance for the establishment of social unity and uniformity especially on the principal level of a team. Since the team-building concept’s main agenda is the establishment of a uniting factor and bond among its members, their own personal and cultural diversity has always been a challenge for the said aim. Common problems and challenges such as uniqueness in the dominant language, dissimilarities with social norms and acceptable principles, differences concerning perception and opinions, and others often become a problem in the team-building aspect. In general, diversity produces stratification and division thus unification is being hindered. Indeed, cultural diversity in the aspect of team building is one of its main weaknesses. However, cultural diversity in a certain team can also serves as its potential strength producing advantages apart from its common disadvantages. Having a culturally diversified group is also beneficial because it can basically cover much more grounds than groups of only single culture. This concept is true because having a multicultural society in a single group will produce more and significantly different opinions and ideas and with the merging of these different ideas, a single group can produce a statement or an idea that is generally valid since it actually addresses point of views from each culture. It is like having a representative from each culture joining together to create a concept that will unify their principles and eliminate their differences. In

Gender Inequality in the Workforce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Gender Inequality in the Workforce - Essay Example Sexism is defined as a mindset or a belief that one sex is better or superior to another (Padavic & Reskin, 2002). It is actually discrimination based on gender. Males and females both can become the victim of sexism but usually, in workplaces, women face gender discrimination. Mostly gender discrimination is related to salaries, promotions, and recruitment. Also on a day to day situations, women encounter sexism. Â  Stereotypes are another form of popular belief about a particular group of individuals. These beliefs have no rational or logical basis but still, they are quite ubiquitous. Stereotypes can be related to genders, race, nationality or ethnicity. Any preconception about a social group without any logical and reasonable evidence can be categorized as stereotypes. They also play a role in discrimination in workplaces. Â  Both of these issues persist in workplaces today. This is mainly because of the diversity of the organizations. Today companies hire a diverse group of employees from different cultures and different genders. Because of this diversity issues like stereotypes and sexism come up regularly in organizations. Â  Females face both sexism and stereotypes. This is because of the mindset of the society regarding their kind. It was only in the 20th century when women were given the right to vote. Before them, they were considered unimportant to such an extent that their say in elections was not deemed important. Women are fighting with the same attitude even today in workplaces. The idea of female emancipation is not easy to digest for the society as a whole.

Being a global grocery store Essay Example for Free

Being a global grocery store Essay Being a global grocery store and merchandising retail store, Tesco continues to consolidate its position as the worlds number three retailer after Wal-mart and Carrefour of the US and France, respectively. The Tesco company emerged in 1924, with its first store being opened in London, five years later. The same company has continued to grow, after that it opened up in 1956, its first supermarket. From then, the company has continued to realize growth and expansion, growing organically during the second phase of the 20th century. The growth during this epoch reached its apogee when in 1977, the Tesco company decided to reduce the prices of its commodities in lieu of Cohens rather antithetical policies. This resulted in Tesco company realising a 4% growth in its market share after every two months. Strategic directions and development methods that have been adopted by Tesco. Up to the moment, the Tesco company has been focusing on making innovations and facilitating conditions that can encourage the same. This is geared towards making the employees free enough to engage in efforts to come up with innovative ideas. The rationale behind this notion is that the rank and file of an entire organization has the ability to generate productive ideas. To this effect, the Tesco company as organization ensures that there is an open line through which the opinions and views of the employees can be solicited (Humby and Hunt 2007, 75). The effect that this approach has on the returns of the Tesco company is that it has realized a stable base of employees who are loyal. This is because the employees, courtesy of the practice, are left with the feeling of being totally integral to the company and being appreciated by the management board. This has bolstered the cause of Tesco companys growth and expansion, due to low employees turnover. The low employees turnover becomes inevitable for Tesco company since employees take to remain loyal to the company, and thus saving it from needing to recruit new employees. At the same time, the Tesco company takes to target the desired goal by making regular consultations with the clients on the quality of goods produced by the Tesco company. This exercise has been very instrumental in helping the Tesco company channel its synergies towards efficiency and customer satisfaction. Forces that are promoting the food retail industrys globalisation. According to Harris and Dennis (2002, 177) there are several forces that ensure the global adoption of the Tesco company food retail. In the first case, the company makes it its responsibility to ensure that its operations are attune to the indigenous tastes and preference of the local market. To this effect, Tesco company takes it upon itself to tamper its operations with the indigenous culture, regulations and delivery chains. This feat has been instrumental in placing the Tesco company in the map. At the same time, Tesco company builds brands that enable it as a company to forge longterm relationships with its clients. In the same vein, the company maintains its ability to fix its focus on the targeted countries, even in the face of going global. This, the company takes to achieve by establishing brands that are unique and of high standard. In the same wavelength, Tesco company has ensured these prospects by establishing brands that are nation or state- specific. In order to thoroughly entrench itself into the global market, Tesco company ensures that it carries out designs that are multi formatted. According to Baker (2002, 90), this has been important to Tesco company, given the fact that it has been established that there is no single format that has been able to consolidate its position in the global market. How Tesco strategy in the US may help it realize competitive advantage. In the US Context, Tesco company has tried to achieve an edge over its peers by taking to mitigate the extent of the shopping costs. Another feather in Tesco companys cap exists, courtesy of the fact that the deficit does not fall on the shoulders of the suppliers. Rather, the Tesco company sorts out the situation through the enhancement of the efficiency and the adoption of simpler processes in the course of the companys operations. Hooley, Saunders and Piercy (2004, 67) maintain that this means that clients are able to realize relatively less costly shopping expeditions, from the Tesco company. Unlike Tesco company, its peers even after reducing the shopping price, still leave financial weight to fall squarely on the suppliers. The suppliers on the other hand try to settle the deficit by exacting higher prices to the retailers who then impose extra costs on the consumers. This cycle becomes the epitome of the adage, borrowing from Peter to pay Paul. In about the same vein, Tesco company is trying to build a niche for itself in the American context by opening up many stores that support the issuance of hard discount (Tapp 2002, 122). To crown this effort, Tesco company has remained responsible for the invitation of British companies that can bolster the interests of the same. Some of these companies are the Big Kahuna Wine a label of Fresh and Easy. This company has been influential in dragging a huge clients base to Tesco company scores, owing to the quality wine and delicious poultry meat it serves. Conclusion. It is important for any company that seeks to emulate Tesco company to take to stock, the fact that the latter has, apart from the aforementioned practices, ensured that it dabbles its operations with the concept of capability. To this cause, the Tesco company ensures the employment of skills, and not scale. This, for the Tesco company portends ensuring that the skills are elicited from its rank and file and the systems processes. Therefore, even small scale companies are inexcusable when it comes to (under) performance. References. Baker, M. J. Tesco company and marketing mix, New York: Prentice Hall, 2002. Harris, L. and C. Dennis, Tesco company and e business, London, SAGE, 2002. Hooley, G. , J. A. Saunders and Piercy, N. , Tesco company marketing strategies, New York: McGraw Hill, 2004. Humby, C. and P. Hunt, Tesco company and customer loyalty, Harvard, Harvard University Press, 2007. Tapp, A. , The principles of database and direct marketing, Michigan, Michigan University Press, 2002.

Working For Children With Disabilities Social Work Essay

Working For Children With Disabilities Social Work Essay There has been a dramatic increase in the survival rate of children born with complex healthcare needs (Carpenter 2003). There are major concerns as a result (Blackburn, Spencer and Read 2010). According to the definition of the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) 7.3% (CI 6.9, 7.7) of children in the UK are stated as having a disability. Disability patterns differ between sexes, with a higher rate overall in boys than girls and possibly more difficulty with learning and remembering ability, communication, concentration and physical coordination in boys. Children with disabilities find themselves in dissimilar situations to those of non-disabled people. This situation for disabled children exists in particular circumstances such as in minority ethnic groups, black/mixed marriages and single-parent families. These children demand support from different professionals and agencies. It is vital for them to have effective multi-agency working. Currently, there is little evidence about the effect of multiagency working with disabled children and their families. (Sloper 1999) highlighted in her paper the unmet needs for families who have children with disabilities: counselling and support to have information and guidance about services; the condition of the child and how to deal with and help the child; equipment supply; financial support with housing and transportation, and having breaks from care like respite care as practical support. This paper will summarize the outcome of an evaluation of both multidisciplinary and multiagency working with disabled children and their families. Background to Multiagency Working and Multidisciplinary Working Multiagency working is eц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢entially about bringing together practitioner with a range of ц¢killц¢ to work acroц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ their traditional ц¢ervice boundarieц¢. Thiц¢ iц¢ currently regarded aц¢ crucial to the effective proviц¢ion of childrenц¢ ц¢erviceц¢. Aц¢ local authoritieц¢ re-organiц¢e to provide education, ц¢ocial care, and ц¢ometimeц¢ health proviц¢ion,( Cronin 2005) within a ц¢ingle childrenц¢ ц¢erviceц¢ department or childrenц¢ truц¢t, three modelц¢ for multiagency working are emerging: Multiagency panels or networkц¢ the team around the child practitionerц¢ remain employed by their home agencieц¢ but meet on a regular baц¢iц¢ to diц¢cuц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ children and young people with additional needц¢ who would benefit from multi-agency input. Multiagency teams made up of practitionerц¢ ц¢econded or recruited into the team, making it a more formal arrangement than a multi-agency panel. The team workц¢ with univerц¢al ц¢erviceц¢ to ц¢upport familieц¢ and ц¢choolц¢ aц¢ well aц¢ individual children and young people. Integrated ц¢erviceц¢ which bring together a range of proviц¢ion, uц¢ually under one roof, ц¢uch as in school or in an early years setting. Staff work in a co-ordinated way to addreц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ the needц¢ of children, young people and familieц¢ providing ц¢erviceц¢ ц¢uch aц¢ all-year-round, incluц¢ive education; care and perц¢onal development opportunitieц¢ for children and young people; and ц¢pecialiц¢t ц¢upport for children and families. The idea of profeц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ionalц¢ and agencieц¢ working together iц¢ not new. There are many proviц¢ionц¢ in the Children Act of 1989 which require different authoritieц¢ to co-operate and to conц¢ult with one another while multi-agency ц¢upport iц¢ a feature of the ц¢pecial educational needц¢ framework, ц¢et up following the Education Act of 1981, (Nelson 2002)particularly in relation to ц¢tatutory aц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢eц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ment and ц¢tatementing. à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ince the Labour government came into power in 1997 a number of initiativeц¢ ц¢uch aц¢ à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ure à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦tart and Connexionц¢ have been put in place to promote effective joined up multi-agency working to ц¢upport vulnerable children. However, the recommendationц¢ which followed the Laming inquiry into the death of Victoria Climbià © prompted a renewed determination to get ц¢erviceц¢ working together and in 2004 a new Children Act established a duty on agencieц¢ to co-operate with each other to protect and improve the liveц¢ of children. Thiц¢ haц¢ reц¢ulted in ц¢ome of the following developmentц¢: The introduction of major changeц¢ to the childrenц¢ workforce: a comprehenц¢ive curriculum for training all practitionerц¢ who work with children iц¢ currently being developed by government. While thiц¢ iц¢ not going to make all profeц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ionalц¢ knowledgeable about diц¢abilitieц¢ ц¢uch aц¢ autiц¢m, they ц¢hould have the baц¢ic ц¢killц¢ to recogniц¢e a poц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ible developmental delay, be able to ц¢upport parentц¢ emotionally and, (McCarton 2006)crucially, to know when to ц¢ignpoц¢t parentц¢ on for more expert advice. Working with children iц¢ a key component of the core curriculum which recogniц¢eц¢, for example, that ц¢ome children do not communicate verbally and that practitione rц¢ need to adapt their communication to the needц¢ and abilitieц¢ of the child or young perц¢on. New wayц¢ of ц¢haring information are being developed to avoid duplication, children ц¢lipping through the net and exceц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ive bureaucracy. The government haц¢ developed ContactPoint, a databaц¢e holding information on every child in England from birth to 18 yearц¢ of age, poц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ibly longer for children who are diц¢abled or looked after. With greater electronic recording of perц¢onal information reц¢ulting in wider acceц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ in ц¢ome caц¢eц¢, iц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ueц¢ of confidentiality are of concern to diц¢abled people. Croц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢-profeц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ional legal guidance ц¢etц¢ out how information ц¢haring ц¢hould happen and coverц¢ confidentiality in ц¢ome depth. The Common Aц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢eц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ment Framework (CAF) which aimц¢ to provide a more ц¢tandardiц¢ed and preventive approach to identifying need and making proviц¢ion and which operateц¢ acroц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ profeц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ional boundarieц¢ has been developed. à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ome children may be identified aц¢ having a poц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ible disability, such aц¢ cerebral Palsy, via this route (Eicher 2003). Every local authority (except the beц¢t performing four ц¢tar authoritieц¢) haц¢ to have a Children and Young Peopleц¢ Plan (CYPP) focuц¢ed on better local integration of childrenц¢ ц¢erviceц¢ in locationц¢ ц¢uch aц¢ extended ц¢choolц¢ and childrenц¢ centreц¢. Familieц¢ with children o n the autiц¢m ц¢pectrum ц¢hould find it eaц¢ier to acceц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ ц¢erviceц¢ aц¢ a reц¢ult and ц¢hould be conц¢ulted about ц¢erviceц¢ they would like to ц¢ee improved and developed. The CYPP coverц¢ all local authority ц¢erviceц¢ affecting children and young people including early yearц¢ and extended ц¢choolц¢ and out-of-ц¢chool child care, education, youth ц¢erviceц¢, childrenц¢ ц¢ocial ц¢erviceц¢. It alц¢o includeц¢ ц¢erviceц¢ provided by relevant youth juц¢tice agencieц¢ and health ц¢erviceц¢ for children and young people, including child and adoleц¢cent mental health. Models of multiagency working Three different models of joint working have been identified by Watson et al. 2002: multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary working. These categories are based on several experts working together effectively in a particular service context, linked with family requirements in a holistic approach (table 1). Multidisciplinary working means single agencies made up of individual professionals (Watson et al. 2002). For instance, a health visitor, a physical therapist, an occupational therapist, a speech and language therapist, and a hospital consultant may work together within a health agency. Professionals work separately to assess the child, and as a consequence they produce separate documents so they do not share their goals and aims, which makes it very difficult to assess the child as a whole. Their care is focused on the childs health care needs only without involving other needs such as educational, emotional and social needs. There is a low equivalent partnership approach with the family and low communication with other agencies; usually family members take on this role. The second model, interdisciplinary working, with different agencies and their professionals working together by assessing the child and his/her family needs separately and then meeting together to set goals according to their findings. This model is focused on the childs needs more than the familys needs. The third model is the more holistic approach and preferred by families, transdisciplinary working, where different agencies work together by sharing goals, knowledge, tasks and responsibilities. This model is focused on a primary provider, the key worker, who is responsible for delivery of an integrated programme for the child, and family care. Moreover, for the most important part is that families are treated equally. Both (Sloper 2004, and Carney 2009) agreed that the transdisciplinary working model in the area of multiagency key working is the only way of integrated working which has favourable outcomes for disabled children and their families. However, there is not so much evidence that could show what type of model is implemented in practice. Sloper et al. 2004 also cited in her paper Cameron (2000) and Atkinson (2002) regarding other models; most models focused on relationships between professionals and how multiagency working was organised. This may contribute to better communication but does not necessarily result in the family receiving a coordinated service. (Table 1 ,Watson et al. 2002) Method Electronic resources (MedLine, Cochrane Library, PsychInfo, PubMed, google Scholar) were used and the focus was on existing reviews, in particular qualitative studies and good quality reviews. Key words The research terms were multidisciplinary working and disabled children, multiagency working and disabled children, and multiagency and multidisciplinary and disabled children. PROPOSED METHOD OF CRITICAL APPRAISAL I have chosen two qualitative studies (Watson, Abbott and Townsley 2007) which help to explore the impact of multiagency/multidisciplinary working on disabled children and their families. CRITICAL APPRAISAL To critically examine the evidence provided by these papers, which are qualitative studies, it is appropriate to use the critical appraisal checklist provided by the critical appraisal programme, from the Public Health Resource Unit, Institute of Health Science, Oxford which was accessed from http://www.phru.nhs.uk . The 10 questions are adapted from Oxman AD, Cook DJ, Guyatt GH, Users guide to medical literature. VI. How to use an overview. JAMA 1994; 272 (17): 1367-1371. The reason for choosing this is because the two studies are qualitative studies. 1st study Authors Watson, D., D. Abbott R. Townsley Title Listen to me, too! Lessons from involving children with complex healthcare needs in research about multi-agency services. Publisher Child: Care, Health Development, (2007) 33, 90-5. 2nd study Authors Carter, B., J. Cummings L. Cooper Title An exploration of best practice in multi-agency working and the experiences of families of children with complex health needs. What works well and what needs to be done to improve practice for the future? Publisher Journal of Clinical Nursing, 16, 527-39. 2007) 10 questions of qualitative research CASP tool (Watson et al. 2007) (Carter et al.2007) Was there a clear statement of the aims of the research? Yes, there was a clear statement of the aims to discover the positive impact of multiagency working on families with children who have complex health care needs. to examine the involvement of complex health care needs children in multiagency services. Yes, there was a clear statement of the aims to create a connection between children, families and people who work with complex needs children. To discover best multiagency working practice with families and people who work with complex needs children, to find out what is good practice. Generate opportunities, associations and guidance plans which will improve multiagency working practice in the future. Is a qualitative methodology appropriate? Yes, there was appropriate methodology: disabled children who are dependent on medical technology and their carer or families. Yes, there was appropriate methodology: 20 Families were targeted (mothers fathers children with complex needs). People working with complex needs children from different agencies. Was the research design appropriate to address the aims of the research? Time spent with 18 children young people aged between 2 -15 yrs, 7 girls and 11 boys (from 6 multiagency services in the UK). Interviews with 115 professionals in the 6 multiagency services about their experience in multiagency services. 25 families visited with parents/carers interviewed about their experience with multiagency services. Appreciative interviews with participants lasted between (40 minutes 3 hours): Individual Face to face Audio- taped Narrative interviews Small group workshops (dreaming design). All participants were invited. Workshops of consent (design and destiny). All participants were invited to attend 5 consensus workshops across 2 counties. Final synthesis. Was the recruitment strategy appropriate to the aims of the research? The authors targeted: 6 services chosen from 26 which presented the highest components of multiagency working. 18 children young people aged between 2 -15 yrs, 7 girls and 11 boys with a range of cognitive abilities, from severe to no learning difficulties. The majority had cognitive impairment. 3 children without obvious learning difficulties. The explanation of chosen participants is explained above#. 18 parents/carers agreed to take part. 2 young people were recruited, one male and one female to help the authors with their meetings and email communication. The authors: Targeted 20 families: 10 families from Burnley / East Lancashire, and 10 from the South Lakes area, to reflect two different health economies within the area served by Cumbria and Lancashire Workforce Development Confederation (WDC), UK. Recruited people working with complex needs children from different agencies as much as possible. Used purposive sampling (families), and sampling of snowballing (professionals). All the targeted population completed the interviews. Also agencies and disciplines were targeted. Were the data collected in a way that addressed the research issue? Time spent / interviews / disposable camera for the purpose of taking photos of all the important people. Informal, adapted, enjoyable and relaxed sessions to meet the needs of each child, lasting for an hour. Small gifts + a 10 pound voucher for taking part. Developed topic guide which covered: Things I like, things I dislike, who lives at home with me, school, friends, adults who helped me, short breaks, difficult things to do, and happiness moments. Drawing on big paper (the child interviewer sometimes). Showing a sheet of simple faces showing different expressions, to choose which one is closest to the child or young person. Asking about seeing professionals, also about having a designated worker, referring to key worker by name depending on the childs cognitive ability. Attride-Stirlings approach to data collection is to codewhat is said in the interviews.( this was used instead of Appreciative Inquiry) Each interview was coded line by line, and codes were assigned to words, phrases and any interesting views relevant to the research aims noted. The researchers used this information to create the 56 statements on a flip charts. they then showed back to the people theyd interviewed.   These people then chose statements which were relevant and meaningful to them, in relation to the research. Small group workshops (dreaming design) All participants were invited. Workshops of consent (design and destiny) All participants were invited to attend 5 agreement workshops across 2 counties. Has the relationship between researcher and participants been adequately considered? Yes it has. A lot of care is taken to create a more equal relationship between the researcher and the complex care needs children and their families. Design method is flexible, non intrusive and responsive to childrens communication styles. The construction of this relationship and the methodology have ethical implications which are discussed below. Yes it has. Flexible and dynamic approach by involving and shared between the participant and researcher. Have ethical issues been taken into consideration? Yes, ethical issues have been taken into consideration. There were plenty of details about how researchers contacted the participants by obtaining consent from young people and some ethical dilemmas were presented. The project was approved by two ethics committees: The Faculty of Health ethics committee. Morecambe Bay Local Research ethics committee (LREC). All the LRECs were covered by Locality Agreements in Cumbria and Lancashire. For the duration of the study, all research team had Honorary Contracts with Morecambe Bay Primary Care Trust (PCT). Comprehensive information was received by the participants and they had opportunities to discuss their involvement. At no time was there any pressure to participate. 24 hours were given as a minimum to make participation decision in the project to participants. Was the data analysis sufficiently rigorous? Yes it was. There was no comprehensive discussion about the method used for data analysis. The authors created data sets using four broad categories and they provided descriptive tables on childrens age, education, use of health technology and communication style. Yes it was. (figure 1) showed how rigorous the data analysis was:, thematic analysis using Attride-Stirlings approach of basic themes grouped into organizing themes and then global themes. Is there a clear statement of findings? Yes, there was a clear statement of findings, there was a discussion of the evidence, but no discussion about the credibility of their findings. Findings were discussed in relation to the childrens communication in multi agency services. Yes there was a clear statement of findings. Their findings were explicit. There was a discussion of the evidence. There was a credibility discussion about their findings. The authors discussed findings in relation to the original research question. 10-How valuable is the research? Yes, the study does make a contribution to understanding the consultation of children with complex care needs used in multiagency services. The authors didnt discuss new areas of research. There was a considerable contribution on involving disabled children in service delivery and research but there is still a gap about involving complex care needs children. The project was valuable because it provided families with a better understanding of how practice should be, and provided opportunities for a mutual relationship between professionals through the exchange of information. The research identified new areas where research is necessary in the future. There was a greater impact on practice by this study and it lead to a better quality of life for both children and their families. Limitations of (Watson et al. 2007) The major limitation in this study is that there was not comprehensive discussion about methods used for data analysis. Moreover, the authors created data sets using four broad categories: friendship and communication, relationships with professionals, school life, and the things that children like and dislike. With such a small sample size, 18 children and adolescents with complex health care needs, between 2-15 years old, it is very difficult to address the effect on the result of bias. Limitations of (Carter et al. 2007) There are some limitations in this qualitative research. The first one is in methods; the authors tried to carry out Appreciative Inquiry but then used Attride-Stirlings approach. Moreover, methods were combined into three stages as another shift in method. Each agency / discipline was not fully represented. There was an absence of involvement of general practitioners. There was a limitation in the appreciative interviews because of they were interviews at a particular point in time. Furthermore, one child was included in the study due to other children being too young to participate or having severe disabilities. Last but not least, the study failed to recruit ethnic minority group parents and children. Discussion The main focus of these two papers was to find out the impact of multidisciplinary or multiagency working on disabled children and their families. Regarding the two studies findings in relation to multiagency working (Watson et al.2007) authors reported that seeing many professionals did not cause any difficulties for the majority of children in the study. However, difficulties did appear when professionals attempted to talk to the child directly. Communication between the key worker and the child was reported as weak or limited. One child expressed their feeling of seeing many professional as a silly and boring thing to do, while another child showed a close relationship with their key worker by recognising their name. In general, this study did attempt the challenge of involving children with complex health care needs, but it is not a reliable study because it used a small sample number of children. As regards the findings of the second paper (Carter et al.2007), they chose two areas from the guidance plans, the 10 statements, as they felt that they reflected the two core areas of guidance which were: the most important As a consequence, authors stated the importance of making children and parents more satisfied and less isolated, and the crucial role of support and voluntary groups. Moreover, families and people from different agencies have to be cooperative when choosing the important role of coordinator for the long term, as this is where parents will seek help. Figure 1 Evidence from disabled children with their families in multiagency and multidisciplinary working Atkinson, Wilkin, Stott, Doherty and Kindel (2002) as cited by (Carney 2009) stated that multiagency working benefits organisations and individuals; it gives a broader perspective by providing enhanced understanding of the matters and improved connections with other agencies, and constructive experience on the whole, respectively. Moving towards better outcomes over the past decade, government has adopted integration of services for children and their families. Integration has taken various appearances such as, putting different types of proficiency together. There are some positive outcomes that have been identified in the review of multidisciplinary team working as a model of multiagency working in health care. (Borrill et al.) came to the conclusion that there was a reduction in hospitalization and cost in terms of primary health care teams; development in the provision of services; growth in health care access; treatment, follow-up and detection are improved, and patient and staff satisfaction and motivation are enhanced Few studies have focused on the impact of multiagency working and multidisciplinary approaches with disabled children and their families (Carter et al. 2007, Townsley, Abbott and Watson 2004, Watson et al. 2002, Watson et al. 2007). The majority of these studies carried out qualitative research methods to find out the key features of successful multiagency working practice and how to make children and parents more satisfied and not isolated, improved and enhanced their quality of life, and the crucial role of support and voluntary groups. Many studies have focused on the positive impact of key worker systems in multiagency services for disabled children and their families (Greco and Sloper 2003, Greco et al. 2005, Greco et al. 2006, Liabo et al. 2001, Sloper et al. 2006). These studies have included comparisons between families with and without key workers. This model stated positive outcomes for families having key workers like enhanced quality of life, less isolation and feelings of strain, better relationships with services, and quicker access to services and reduced levels of stress. (Greco et al. 2005) authors have stated many advantages of having a key worker service in multiagency working for parents and children, as they can relate their concerns to one person who can then ensure the familys needs are met and coordinate services. Having a key worker avoids duplication of telling the same story to professionals, and families received better information. Also, having a key worker enhanced the relationship betwee n the child and their family by providing them with a mediating role and through building relationships with disabled children. Key working is a service, involving two or more agencies, that provides disabled children and young people and their families with a system whereby services from different agencies are co-ordinated. It encompasses individual tailoring of services based on assessment of need, inter-agency collaboration at strategic and practice levels and a named key worker for the child and family (Care Coordination Network UK, 2004). Also there was a range of studies which have mainly focused on staff views (Tait and Dejnega 2001, Presler 1998, Abbott, Townsley and Watson 2005). These studies illustrate the positive impact on staff when they use multiagency working for disabled children. For instance, there was enhanced communication and improved relationships with complex health-care need children, development in their work lives and their professional skills, enhanced teamwork with collaborators and more satisfaction in their role. Two studies have discussed two services; (Young et al. 2008, Robson and Beattie 2004). The former talked about an Early Support programme to improve integrated services for disabled children and their families between 0 and 3 years old. The aim of this study was to improve and enhance outcomes for disabled children and their families, and to find out the relationship between integrated services and the impact of ES in terms of cost effectiveness and their benefits. The other study (Robson and Beattie 2004) is a coordination project by Diana Childrens Community Service and multiagency services using qualitative methods e.g. interviews, questioner , focus group to name but a few. The results were effective collaboration within and between the services for disabled children and their families by enhanced and improved family support and satisfaction; a sense of control and a feeling of empowerment; equivalent partnerships between families and professionals, with duplication and service gaps reduced. Sloper 2004 identified many negative outcomes of multiagency or multidisciplinary working on disabled children and their families when there are barriers to facilitating the integrating of services such as: when there are unclear roles and responsibilities; aims and roles are not shared among agencies; there is disagreement on aims; there is low quality of management including ongoing training, weak leadership and communication, and sharing of information; poor IT systems, and poor relationships with professionals. Conclusion Many studies have focused on the advantages of facilitating multiagency working generally as the most holistic approach for disabled children and their families and on multidisciplinary working specifically in terms of team working. However, there was a lack of studies which concentrated on the drawbacks of the two working models. This results in a need to address more focus on the negatives for future studies for both multidisciplinary and multiagency working with disabled children and their families. In my opinion, from my prospective experience in the disabled children association in Jeddah in Saudi Arabia, I have identified what type of model my organization followed: multidisciplinary working alone which recognises that all professionals are working separately. My recommendation is to implement the holistic approach or transdisciplinary working which focuses on integrating services and adopting the key worker system to gain positive outcomes for the services in DCA.

Femininity against Masculinity in A White Heron Essay -- Sarah Orne Je

Since its first appearance in the 1886 collection A White Heron and Other Stories, the short story A White Heron has become the most favorite and often anthologized of Sarah Orne Jewett. Like most of this regionalist writer's works, A White Heron was inspired by the people and landscapes in rural New England, where, as a little girl, she often accompanied her doctor father on his visiting patients. The story is about a nine-year-old girl who falls in love with a bird hunter but does not tell him the white heron's place because her love of nature is much greater. In this story, the author presents a conflict between femininity and masculinity by juxtaposing Sylvia, who has a peaceful life in country, to a hunter from town, which implies her discontent with the modernization?s threat to the nature. Different from female and male which can describe animals, femininity and masculinity are personal and human. That is femininity refers to qualities and behaviors associated with women and girls and masculinity is manly character, it specifically describes men. Femininity has traditionally included features such as gentleness, patience and kindness. On the contrary, men?s chief qualities are strength, courage and violence. Clearly images for two definitions above in A White Heron are Sylvia and the hunter. The hunter is friendly and easy-going while Sylvia is ?afraid of folks?. Sylvia is ?a little maid who had tried to grow for eight years in a crowded manufacturing town?, but she is innocent and purity. ?The little woods-girl is horror-stricken to hear a clear whistle not very far away.? ?Sylvia was more alarmed than before? when the hunter appears and talks to her. She easily agrees to help the hunter with providing food and a place... ...usting civilization upon it? (P. Miller, p.207). With all this, the author has achieved the vividness implication that aggressive masculine modernization is a danger to the gentle feminine nature. In the end of the story, Sylvia decides to keep the secret of the heron and accepts to see her beloved hunter go away. This solution reflects Jewett?s hope that the innocent nature could stay unharmed from the urbanization. In conclusion, Sylvia and the hunter are two typical representatives of femininity and masculinity in the story ?The white heron? by Sarah Orne Jewett. In the age of industrialization when rural life gradually was destroyed, the author as a girl who spent almost of her life in countryside could not help writing about it and what she focuses in her story - femininity and masculinity, which themselves contain the symbolic meanings - come as no surprise.

The Importance of Budgeting and Long Range Financial Goals :: essays papers

The Importance of Budgeting and Long Range Financial Goals Me, being a financial independent have experienced first hand how important it is to keep a financial plan. Using a financial plan I have elevated my savings abilities a long way. Knowing where each dollar is being spent helps the spender to manage each dollar in an uplifting way. In a ten-year plan my goal would have to be to save at least twelve hundred dollars a year which would one hundred dollars each month of that financial plan. Using the persona financial profile assigned by you at the beginning of the year this long-term goal would be possible. Being in college, managing money is very important. Keeping a portfolio and an account of all money spent is a very important step in my keeping my financial situation in good terms. Becoming in debt is another concern of mine. Debt includes, credit cards loans, store credits accounts, or any other form of borrowing money. A large amount of students make the mistake of purchasing things that they have no money for. This is why credit is so bad for students. A personal financial plan is only possible if the independent is focused on what he or she is doing. You have to account for each dollar and not cheat yourself. The importance of budgeting all depends on the independent. If the independent is focused on saving and accounting for their money then it will work! It is needed in each college student’s life. Being in college makes it extra difficult to decipher what you are doing with your money. A greater percentage of students that have used this type of financial program have been successful rather than those, which don’t account for the money that they spend. Having a long-range financial goal can help you all throughout life.

Aerodynamics of Golf Balls :: physics sport sports golf

Introduction to Aerodynamics Aerodynamics is the study of the motion of fluids in the gas state and bodies in motion relative to the fluid/air. In other words the study of aerodynamics is the study of fluid dynamics specifically relating to air or the gas state of matter. When an object travels through fluid/air there are two types of flow characteristics that happen, laminar and turbulent. Laminar flow is a smooth steady flow over a smooth surface and it has little disturbance. Intuition would lead to the belief that this type of air flow would be desirable. It would make sense to assume that this smooth undisturbed air would create the least amount of resistive force due to friction. The golf ball seemingly defies this theory by traveling farther with its disruptive surface texture that creates the second flow characteristic, turbulent flow. Turbulent flow is flow that is disturbed and creates whirlpool like features. The turbulent air actually lessens the difference in velocity of the air layer that is extremely close to the ball compared to the rest of the air and so lessens the friction acting on the ball. Drag is a major contributor to how an object travels through fluid/air. Drag is caused by the disrupted air immediately behind an object moving through fluid/air. It acts perpendicular to and in the opposite direction of travel of the object and impedes the motion of the object. It would make sense that if the drag is minimized the object will travel farther. Lift or curve in the motion of an object through air is a phenomena that is noticeable in a ball traveling through fluid/air. This change in direction is due to the effect that spin has on the object in motion. This can be explained by Bernoulli's Principle. Bernoulli, a 1700's physicist and mathematician, showed that the speed of an object through liquid/air changes the pressure of the air. The velocity of a spinning ball relative to the air is different from one side to the other creating a low pressure on one side and a high pressure on the other. This causes the ball to move in the direction of the lower pressure. The golf ball is typically hit with an undercut causing a reverse rotation and therefore a lifting action on the ball. The History of Golf Balls The golf ball has changed dramatically through the years. Smooth hardwood balls were used between the 1400 and 1700's.

Artists and Self Portraits

Why would someone take the time to create a work of art that merely resembles themselves? To answer this, one must understand the famous artists of the past, both visual and literary. When analyzing a self- portrait, one notices that it often goes beyond the visual characteristics of the author. Minute details that can be easily overlooked frequently delve into the artist's personality and can sometimes make the viewer look deeper Into themselves. To answer the why of self-portraiture, one must understand the how.By comparing the tertiary elements of Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, by James Joyce, to the artistic techniques utilized by legendary artists In their self-portraits, one learns the reason of why someone would create a portrait of themselves. When making a self-portrait, It takes much more than simply looking In the mirror and copying what one sees either In text or through art. To make a self-portrait, the artist must look Into themselves and select their most Impor tant qualities that they want to show to the world. Jockey's original version of Portrait of the Artist as a YoungMan, known as Stephen Hero, was comprised of over nine hundred pages and his siblings were major characters. In the revision that made it his portrait, he decided to get rid of a few hundred of those pages and to focus exclusively on the psychological growth of his alter ego, Stephen Deals. While it must have been difficult for Joyce to completely take out a majority of his work from the published product, the more precise version gave readers a true sense of Joyce and what moments in his life affected his process of growth from a young poet to an accomplished writer.The selective process is one of the most important elements of elf-portraiture. Another important aspect of self-portraits is the use of color; in literary portraits, the use of diction. The best way to describe the importance of the two was explained by Vincent van Gogh, â€Å"Instead of trying to reproduc e exactly what I have before my eyes, I use color more arbitrarily, in order to express myself, more forcefully. † Van Gogh understood the importance of colors and how they can affect the overall message off self-portrait.In a portrait that he painted right after being admitted Into a psychiatric hospital (image 1), the background is dark blue and his shirt Is almost the same color. Because the shirt does not have a definite outline, It gives the Illusion that he is fading into the dark abyss of the background. After spending more time In the hospital, he painted another portrait (Image 2). Even though the actual Image of him is almost identical to the previous portrait, It evokes a completely different set of emotions because of the lighter colors he used.The light blue tones make the painting feel relaxed and calm whereas In the previous painting, the dark color makes It feel ominous and depressing. Van Sago's quote can also be applied Joey's writing. In the years after Step hens childhood, he never Just states what Is going on In the world around him; his Dalton and perspective always affect It. The Dalton he uses not only describes his surroundings, but It describes him as well. HIS choice of diction gives the reader Insight Into his personality and his opinion without directly stating it. When talking about prostitutes, he has two very different views.In rebellion, his encounter with the prostitute is very emotional and almost loving. He refers to her as â€Å"a young woman dressed in a long pink gown† and uses phrases like warm and lighthouse,† â€Å"embraced him gaily,† and â€Å"tears of Joy and relief shone in his delighted eyes† to show his happiness and comfort in the presence of the woman. In the third chapter, when Stephen is beginning to close himself off emotionally, he calls prostitutes â€Å"whore's† and describes them using words like â€Å"squalid,† â€Å"yawning lazily,† and â€Å"cluste rs of hair† which accentuates his hardened opinion towards them.Easily overlooked, the use of color and diction changes the overall meaning of self-portraits by conveying feelings that otherwise would have been missed. In addition to color ND diction, small details are another vastly important aspect of portraiture that usually go unnoticed. An artist who understood how small details could express personality and advertise oneself was Judith Leister. She knew how to make people feel as if they knew her when they looked at her portrait.Her self-portrait emphasizes the importance of small details and what they can add to the message of the final product. In her portrait (image 3), her posture alone says many things about her personality. She is leaning back with her elbow on the chair facing towards the ewer which shows that she is confident in what she is doing and takes pride in her work, eager to show it off to any who interrupt her when she is at work. Her facial expression shows that she is happy, outspoken, and has a warm, welcoming attitude towards people.The other miniscule details that she included in her portrait may have been a clever form of self-promotion. The painting she is working on in the picture is of a man playing the violin; she was known for painting lively, happy scenes so by having it in her self-portrait, she is saying that painting these scenes is an important part of her. She is holding eighteen brushes in one hand which shows that she is a talented artist and the clothes that she painted herself in show that she is wealthy and successful.These details could be used to entice potential patrons to hire her because by seeing her portrait, they believe that she is a talented artist who is confident in her work. Like Leister, James Joyce also understood the weight that small details carry. When describing people, Stephen only gives the person's description and actions; he never gives his actual opinions of them. The details that e in cludes shows what stood out to him in the moment and which features of the person were the most important. One character that Joyce gives a personality to through details is Vincent Heron.Heron and Stephen had been competing in school for as long as the two can remember yet Joyce never outright says Stephens opinion of him- it is blatantly stated through the details that are included. The first thing that Heron says is â€Å"Noble Deals' in a high throaty voice. † He then lets out a â€Å"soft peal of mirthless laughter,† and brandishes his cane. Beside him, he has an intimidating yet intelligent friend who agrees with everything Heron says. From these few details, much can be said about what Stephen feels is Heron's personality.From the way laughs and the fact that he carries a cane with him, it is obvious that he is arrogant and believes himself to be better than those around him. It also shows that Heron is a powerful manipulator. His fake laugh, the way he addresse s Stephen and the fact that a more powerful man is his inferior shows that he knows how to interact with people in a way that results in him always having the upper hand in a situation. Small details can have on self-portraits. In addition to these elements of self- portraiture, motifs are significant as well. Might not a painter's choice of lines and colors give an indication of his character, whether it is noble or common? † Paul Gauguin believed that the way in which a person makes their portrait says the most about them. In his Self-portrait from 1889 (image 4), he paints himself among many different symbols. The halo above his head symbolizes him as almost being an angelic figure yet he is holding the snake of temptation between his fingers. He is also within reach of the apples of the Tree of Knowledge which means that when he as painting this, there was a temptation that he had to refrain from.The fact that he only painted his head in the portrait may symbolize that he felt lost in this battle of good and evil and that he felt out of control. The bright red of the background also adds to the chaotic feeling. By painting himself interacting with all of these symbols, it may be his way of conveying his battle between good and evil into a portrait. His painting of the motif showed that he felt there was a hectic struggle going on in his life that affected how he saw himself. Joyce also put emphasis on the power of outfits.In Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, a major motif that is applied throughout the story is that of temperature. When Stephen was happy and comfortable, Joyce did not have to say it; he made a reference to something that was warm that was a signal of Stephens happiness. When Stephen was depressed and felt lost, something about the situation felt cold. While at Clones, a boarding school that he hated, he always felt cold and uncomfortable and when he thought of being at home to comfort himself, he would feel a wave of warmth wash over him.The motifs that artists use to further their self-portraits often elevate them to a level that takes deep comprehension to understand. So why would one choose to make a self-portrait? Some may say that self-portraiture is a selfish act; merely a way for one to immortality themselves, a way to have a representation on earth long after they are gone. However, James Joyce describes how his self-portrait came to be the best, â€Å"Think you're escaping and run into yourself. † When Joyce first started to write Stephen Hero, he was attempting to distance himself from his embarrassing, poetic sat.Yet as he began to put more into the work, he began to delve deeper into himself, realizing what made him the man he was and what he contributed to the world around him. Self-portraits force the artist to embark on a Journey of self- discovery. They make it possible for the artist to warp the person that the outside world sees into the person that they see themselves as or the pe rson they wish to be. While self-portraiture may have selfish results, the process of creating a self-portrait is the artist's way of understanding themselves, inside and out.

Psychology of Human Sexuality

65 million people are living with an incurable STI (Sexually Transmitted Infection) in the United States. This is an extremely high number which includes many different types and forms of diseases. Some are curable and others are not. So this is a huge problem in the USA and all over the world that I had no idea about or put much thought into. It is incredible the outstanding number of people with STI’s and the growing rate. This truly is in every sense of the word a pandemic as referred to in the book. I will discuss a few things from this chapter about STI’s that I found most interesting besides the STI’s themselves that almost made me hurl due to some of the graphic pictures. Some issues that are related and need to be learned include the lack of symptoms, lack of accurate information, unhealthy sexual emotions and attitudes, poor sexual communication, and substance abuse and its relation to STI’s. All of the above mentioned things I will discuss are important to me because they are risk factors that I needed to learn and be aware of. For example, not all STI’s have symptoms or show signs of physical problems such as rashes or a discharge. Most sexual transmitted infections have symptoms that are often absent. That is scary due to the fact people may not know they are infected and maintain their normal sexual activity with no knowledge of infecting others. This is a huge problem to me because it’s not like people carry their results with them of their last STI test results. In my case I get tested in 3 days due to the fact ignorance is bliss and I don’t want to be irresponsible in my actions. I also think that some people don’t get tested for the mere fact they just don’t want to know even if they have been involved in risky sexual behaviors. Asymptomatic means that symptoms may not be produced at all. Not know if you are infected and affecting others leads to a bigger problem because most STI’s leads to greater health problems down the road. A sexual act of of love or lust can turn into a nightmare. Lack of knowledge is a huge risk factor because the number of our youth participating in sexual activities is indeed increasing. They partake in oral sex and think it is ok because pregnancy can’t occur. However, being one of these ignorant kids’ years ago myself I didn’t know that oral sex increases the chances of STI’s or what an STI was. Especially, these hormone and sexually driven kids don’t care or have the knowledge of knowing the ease at which STI’s can spread through sexual activity and oral sex, or even the lack of knowing how severe this problem can occur. I’ve heard a lot of my friends say oh man I just got tested after I hooked up with that slut and I’m clean, guess I dodged a bullet. It is a complete joke and the severity of these issues is not driven home properly. Sexual emotions and attitudes are something I have learned to be true. I know a lot of girls who were told sex is bad by their parents and they seemed to take it out on their college exploits. Avoiding the safe sex talk and that sex is not a horrible thing when handled correctly can lead to better understanding and decision making by the child. Also, the the fear and stigma of people who have STI’s or don’t want to be tested for fear they might have one creates more issues for them and may lead to them not telling their partner out of shame and embarrassment. This I thought I knew but this chapter justified that thought. I for sure learned that sexual communication is important for a healthy sexual relationship. It is healthy for my relationship and makes things more comfortable and easy. I learned that not just condoms and knowledge are important in preventing STI’s, but communication has an essential role as well. Parents must discuss safe sex with their children and openly discuss sexual matters due to the fact it is normal eventually inevitable. Talking to your partner about being tested or that you have an STI is the responsible thing to do. I knew that substance abuse had to play a role in increasing the chances for the spread of STI’s. it only makes sense due to the fact we all know what it feels like to be under the consumption of alcohol where our morals and principles go at that point. Things become more in the moment as mentioned in the book and risky sexual behavior is more likely to occur. For example, I know a lot about this from attending San Diego State University a big party school in California, but the statistics provided in the book that 1 in 5 teens reports having unprotected sex while under the influence of drugs and lcohol just solidifies that theory. I learned a lot and was shocked about the STI pandemic and all the issues related such as the lack of information and health risks associated with it. This really does scare me to know that my previous partners could have unknowingly passed an STI to me. I was tested before my girlfriend and I started dating but I will get tested again in three days just to be sure. It is really important to do so and people should be made aware of the severity and problems related to STI’s followed by knowledge and prevention methods. I am thankful for this class and my newfound knowledge.

Mandatory Sentencing

Many changes have occurred over the past three decades with regards to the sentencing systems from both the state and federal levels.   In 1975, all states and also the federal system principally relied on an indeterminate sentencing system that accorded judges wide discretion with respect to sentencing and gave parole boards practically unchecked discretion regarding the release of prisoners (Tonry & Hatlesad, 1997). All jurisdictions placed great emphasis on the philosophy of tailoring sentences to reflect offenders’ characteristics. This strategy represented an attempt to achieve the rehabilitation of the offender. That uniform response to sentencing has disappeared; in the year 2000, there is no common philosophy or common sentencing practices across jurisdictions in America (Tonry, 1999). All states, however, have adopted statutes requiring mandatory minimum prison sentences for certain violent, drug, and property offenders. The result has been increased sentence lengths (and numbers of admissions to custody) for a wide range of offenses. This, in turn, has led to overcrowded prisons across the country. Mandatory Sentencing Despite many legislative changes regarding specific crimes, 30 states still rely primarily on an indeterminate sentencing system which incorporates parole release (Tonry, 1999). Fourteen states have eliminated early release at the discretion of a parole board for all offenders, and many more states have substantially reduced â€Å"goodtime† credits, by which prisoners may earn their early release (Ditton and Wilson, 1999). Some jurisdictions have attempted to structure sentencing through the use of presumptive or voluntary sentencing guidelines. Several states have made a conscious effort to avoid populist punitive policies by requiring legislators to consider the impact of a law on criminal justice resources. For example, before approving legislation, Louisiana legislators must consider an impact statement on how a mandatory sentencing bill would affect jury trials, plea bargaining, overcrowding in prisons, and the corrections budget (DiMascio, 1997). In stark contrast to the federal sentencing guidelines, eight states have adopted â€Å"front-end resource matching†; the resources required for the implementation of a sentencing law must be approved before the sentencing law is enacted. This focus on resource matching may create more rational sentencing and allow legislators some breathing space in which to resist intense public pressure arising from high-profile cases (Frase, 1995, p. 179). These efforts, however, are infrequent, and policies reflecting penal populism still carry the day more often than not in contemporary America. Criminal Control Truly, the complexity of the criminal justice problem is such that issues like the etiology of crime and the impact of drug addiction on criminal behavior may never be completely understood. Because of this, there is much room for the purveyors of scientific snake off to sell their wares to an unsuspecting public. Proponents of the various programs that are engineered as solutions to such problems as recidivism and crime prevention are so diverse in their political philosophies and theoretical schools as to cause the head to reel. Still, the public demands that there be answers, and politicians have mandated that they be found – and they have been. Bureaucrats and academics, professional consultants and political activists, government commissions and high-powered think tanks have all been analyzing data and constructing better programs for the alleviation of crime. Each of the many camps that have sprung up around this industry has a particular theory to espouse and a specific agenda to promote. Most of them have budgets, jobs, and political turf to protect. And whether one is trying to deflect attention away from the failure of law enforcement and its allies or pursuing failure as a means of promoting a political agenda of scapegoating the poor, nothing will achieve the goal better than the latest and most fashionable pseudoscientific technique for reducing crime. Evaluating the Criminal Justice Policy Criminological research, just as any other body of scientific knowledge, can serve ideological or bureaucratic ends just as readily as it can serve the advancement of positive social goals. Indeed, this is the entire point of Jeffrey Reiman's Pyrrhic defeat theory. By selectively collecting and analyzing some data while ignoring others, one can frequently arrive at whatever conclusion will support the practitioner's or researcher's favorite theory. At the very heart of Reiman's assessment of the American system of justice is the contention that the police focus on street crime while ignoring white-collar and corporate crime. He notes, for example, that while 9,285 members of the work force lost their lives due to crime in 1972, 100,000 of them died as the result of occupational hazards (Reiman 1979, p. 66). It is Reiman's contention that many of the latter deaths were preventable, and thus were tantamount to negligent homicides. It is no wonder, then, he contends, that corporate interests use their influence to ensure that no legislation that would make such negligence prosecutable comes into being while, at the same time, supporting the aggressive pursuit of street gangs, burglars, and robbery suspects. Samuel Walker and the Criminal Justice Policy Samuel Walker does an excellent job of illustrating the impact of ideology on criminology and the American system of justice. In his book Sense and Nonsense About Crime and Drugs, he describes what he refers to as the conservative theology (pp. 17-19) and the liberal theology (pp. 19-20) of crime control: â€Å"Conservative crime control theology envisions a world of discipline and self-control; people exercise self-restraint and subordinate their personal passions to the common good. It is a place of limits and clear rules about human behavior. The problem with criminals is that they lack self-control† (p. 17). So goes Walker's account of the stance of the right. He goes on to asses the position of the left on issues of crime as well: â€Å"Liberal crime control theology views the world as a large and idealized school. It explains criminal behavior in terms of social influences. People do wrong because of bad influences in the family, the peer group, or the neighborhood, or because of broader social factors, such as discrimination and lack of economic opportunity. The liberals' solution to crime is to create a different set of influences. Rehabilitation involves shaping the offender in the direction of correct behavior† (p. 19). Samuel Walker and the Mandatory Sentencing Having set the stage, Walker goes on to explain that each of these camps has set upon a quest for its own brand of success. He describes the liberal push for reforms in the area of corrections as â€Å"the story of a continuing search for the Holy Grail of rehabilitation† (p. 19). As for the conservative tendency to equate deterrence with parental discipline, he tells us that â€Å"The real world, unfortunately, does not work like family discipline† (p. 18) Walker then supports these characterizations of the liberal and conservative schools of criminology by debunking several of the programs the two sides support and the claimed successes for each. One example used by Walker is that of the mandatory sentencing programs so near and dear to the hearts of law-and-order conservatives. The state of New York's 1973 drug law mandating lengthy prison terms is one of those examined. The law provided that convicted heroin dealers would serve minimum, mandatory prison terms ranging from one year to life for minor offenders, and fifteen years to life for major offenders (those who either sold an ounce of heroin or possessed two ounces of the substance). It was found, however, that between 1972 and 1976, â€Å"the overall percentage of arrests leading to conviction fell from 33.5 to 20 percent† (Walker 1994, p. 92). Walker points out that members of the â€Å"courtroom work group† (p. 48) (prosecutors, judges, and defense attorneys) were able to evade the intent of the law by selectively charging and dismissing the offenders. Although he concedes that there was some modest success, in that the rate of incarceration did go up for those who were convicted, the effect of the law was essentially nullified (p. 92). The claim that mandatory sentencing program are, by and large, not successful is further supported by the experiences of both the state of Florida and the federal system. Even though Florida passed mandatory sentencing laws in 1975 and 1988, no significant impact on sentencing practices has resulted. Walker again points out that such factors as judicial discretion and â€Å"good time† reduction of prison terms effectively negated the laws' impact as an effective tool for reducing crime (pp. 87-88). The story for the federal system is similar, though it must be conceded that the length of prison terms for those convicted did increase. Walker points out that this served to greatly increase the prison population and add to overcrowding. At the same time, however, correctional officials employed a greater use of â€Å"good time† programs in an effort to ease these conditions. The result is that whatever benefit might have been realized has again been negated (p. 95). An example of how Samuel Walker explains the failure of the left to come up with the right answers to the question of how to control crime is found in his account of the Martinson Report. This 1974 criminological report by Robert Martinson resulted from a review of all of the evaluations of correctional programs that were available in English-language publications between 1945 and 1967. Walker informs us that most of this universe of data was eliminated as not bun scientifically valid, for the Martinson team found that they were lacking such vital research components as control groups or drew â€Å"questionable conclusions from the data† (p. 209). The upshot of the study was that although Martinson did find some positive results from correctional rehabilitation, he also stated that â€Å"with few and isolated exceptions, the rehabilitative efforts that have been reported so for have had no appreciable effect on rehabilitation† (pp. 208-209). Follow-up studies of the type conducted by Martinson, Walker indicates, have resulted in similar findings, fueling a long-term debate on the efficacy of rehabilitation programs. Samuel Walker makes it clear that practitioners and researchers alike are guilty of wishful thinking and of stacking the deck in favor of their individual arguments. Time and again he demonstrates that many of the so-called successes in rehabilitation have been invented rather than achieved. Closer attention to ethical decision making might have served to advance the state of criminology in these instances, just as it might aid in achieving a more effectively run police department. A brief look at two of Walker's examples will be illustrative. Diversion is one of the programs Walker examines, and he chooses the Manhattan Court Employment Project as an example (p. 212). In this program employment services were provided to underemployed and unemployed defendants-not facing homicide, rape, kidnapping, or arson changes. Such persons were granted a delay of prosecution and could have their cases dismissed if they secured stable employment. A program evaluation conducted shortly after the project was initiated gave it high marks, including a 48.2 percent success rate and a very low cost. Later, however, another study found that recidivism was not abated and that the cost figures were misleading. Walker explains that this was due to the â€Å"net-widening syndrome,† (p. 213) a situation in which low risk offenders who would otherwise have their cases dismissed were selected for inclusion in the diversion program. The result, of course, is a skewing of statistics and the incurring of a cost that would otherwise not have been necessary. â€Å"The net-widening phenomenon suggests that the ‘old' diversion did a better job,† writes Walker (p. 214). Walker notes that what he means by this is that district attorneys who declined to prosecute and police officers who elected not to arrest offenders for minor violations of the law did a far more cost-effective and less intrusive job of diversion than did the Manhattan Court Employment Project. Walker also takes a look at intensive probation supervision (IPS), another of the many fads to hit the rehabilitation scene. In IPS programs, probationers are closely supervised with a great number of contacts between the client and the probation officer, frequent testing of drugs, and generally much tighter restrictions on behavior and movements. Not all that surprisingly, Walker finds that such programs are not new. As evidence of this he cites the San Francisco Project, an IPS program that was put into place during the 1960s. The San Francisco Project, a federal program of intensive probation supervision, was subjected to systematic evaluation at the time. Control groups were set up, reports Walker, for the purpose of comparing the new intensive measures with more traditional and less restrictive ones. The evaluators learned that there was â€Å"no significant difference in the recidivism rates of offenders in the various groups† (p. 214). Walker points out that there are similar findings in studies of the newest wave of IPS programs. Evaluations recently conducted in California, New Jersey, and Georgia are equally disheartening. â€Å"IPS suffers from both confused goals and exaggerated promises,† he writes (p. 220). Conclusion After all, a question still remains as to what are we to make of all of these?   Confusion and a seemingly endless series of fits and starts appear to constitute our best effort at finding a solution to crime and violence.   Samuel Walker provides us with a very solid explanation in his book as he goes about the task of illustrating the significant issues that encompass the current criminal justice policy. References DiMascio, W. M. (1997). Seeking justice: Crime and punishment in America. New York: Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Ditton, P. M., and D. J. Wilson (1999). Truth in sentencing in state prisons. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Special Report (NCJ 170032). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice. Frase, R. S. (1995). State sentencing guidelines: Still going strong. Judicature. 78(4): 173–179. Reiman, Jeffrey (1979). The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Tonry, M., and K. Hatlestad, eds. (1997). Sentencing reform in overcrowded times: A comparative perspective. New York: Oxford University Press. Tonry, M. (1999). The fragmentation of sentencing and corrections in America. National Institute of Justice: Research in Brief. NCJ 175721. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Walker, Samuel (1994). Sense and Nonsense About Crime and Drugs: A Policy Guide. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.